PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF TROPICAL AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

The digitalization process in developing countries is accelerating, and the Internet has become a medium for connecting politics, society, and citizens’ lives. Previous studies have explored the positive connections between internet growth and citizens’ social participation, but the mechanisms of effects have not been revealed. For young adults, safeguarding rights online is the most common form of social participation in the digital era. In this study, we provided an analytical framework on the impact of internet use on young adults’ rights to safeguard online based on the public sphere theory. Using data from 1,343 young adults in China, we examined the influence of internet use on youths’ intention to safeguard their rights online and the mediating role of functional perceptions. The results showed that Internet use was positively associated with young adults’ intention to safeguard their rights online, perceptions of three internet functions, which are resource acquisition, issue discussion, and fairness promotion, mediated this association, and the mediating role of internet function perceptions was more significant in participation in activities organized by others than in self-initiated rights safeguard. This study reveals the intrinsic mechanism of internet use to social participation, and we argued that the public sector in developing countries should be aware of the influence of the Internet on social participation and take reasonable measures to ensure that young adults effectively and legally engage in digital platforms.

• Aarons, L., & Rona, G. (2016). State responsibility to respect, protect and fulfill human rights obligations in cyberspace. Journal of National Security & Policy, 8, 503–530.

• Ak, Ş., Koruklu, N., & Yılmaz, Y. (2013). A study on turkish adolescent’s internet use: Possible predictors of internet addiction. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(3), 205–209. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0255

• Anduiza, E., Cantijoch, M., & Gallego, A. (2009). Political participation and the internet: A field essay. Information, Communication & Society, 12(6), 860–878. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180802282720

• Anduiza, E., Gallego, A., & Cantijoch, M. (2010). Online political participation in Spain: The impact of traditional and internet resources. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 7(4), 356–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681003791891

• Bakker, T. P., & de Vreese, C. H. (2011). Good news for the future? young people, internet use, and political participation. Communication Research, 38(4), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650210381738

• Batorski, D., & Grzywińska, I. (2018). Three dimensions of the public sphere on Facebook. Information, Communication & Society, 21(3), 356–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1281329

• Benney, J. (2007). Rights defence and the virtual China. Asian Studies Review, 31(4), 435–446. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357820701710732

• Biao, T. (2012). Rights defence (weiquan), microblogs (weibo), and popular surveillance (weiguan). China Perspectives, 2012(3), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.4000/chinaperspectives.5943

• Bosch, T. (2017). Twitter activism and youth in South Africa: The case of #RhodesMustFall. Information, Communication & Society, 20(2), 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1162829

• Boulianne, S., & Theocharis, Y. (2020). Young people, digital media, and engagement: A meta-analysis of research. Social Science Computer Review, 38(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439318814190

• Cao, H., Sun, Y., Wan, Y., Hao, J., & Tao, F. (2011). Problematic internet use in Chinese adolescents and its relation to psychosomatic symptoms and life satisfaction. BMC Public Health, 11(1), Article 802. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-802

• Chae, Y., Lee, S., & Kim, Y. (2019). Meta-analysis of the relationship between internet use and political participation: examining main and moderating effects. Asian Journal of Communication, 29(1), 35–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2018.1499121

• Chan, M., Wu, X., Hao, Y., Xi, R., & Jin, T. (2012). Microblogging, online expression, and political efficacy among young Chinese citizens: The moderating role of information and entertainment needs in the use of weibo. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(7), 345–349. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0109

• Chen, D. (2017). “Supervision by public opinion” or by government officials? Media criticism and central-local government relations in China. Modern China, 43(6), 620–645. https://doi.org/10.1177/0097700417706704

• Cheng, Y., Liang, J., & Leung, L. (2015). Social network service use on mobile devices: An examination of gratifications, civic attitudes and civic engagement in China. New Media and Society, 17(7), 1096–1116. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814521362

• Cooper, A., Nazzari, V., Kon Kam King, J., & Pettigrew, A. (2013). Speaking rights: Youth empowerment through a participatory approach. International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies, 4(3.1), 489-501. https://doi.org/10.18357/ijcyfs43.1201312627

• Dong, T., Liang, C., & He, X. (2017). Social media and internet public events. Telematics and Informatics, 34(3), 726–739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2016.05.024

• Dutton, W. H., & Reisdorf, B. C. (2019). Cultural divides and digital inequalities: Attitudes shaping internet and social media divides. Information Communication and Society, 22(1), 18–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1353640

• Earl, J., Maher, T. V., & Elliott, T. (2017). Youth, activism, and social movements. Sociology Compass, 11(4), e12465. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12465

• Ekström, M., & Östman, J. (2015). Information, interaction, and creative production: The effects of three forms of internet use on youth democratic engagement. Communication Research, 42(6), 796–818. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650213476295

• Fenton, N. (2018). Fake democracy: The limits of public sphere theory. Javnost - The Public, 25(1–2), 28–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2018.1418821

• Freelon, D. G. (2010). Analyzing online political discussion using three models of democratic communication. New Media and Society, 12(7), 1172–1190. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444809357927

• García-Galera, M. C., Del-Hoyo-Hurtado, M., & Fernández-Muñoz, C. (2014). Engaged youth in the internet. The role of social networks in social active participation. Comunicar, 22(43), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.3916/C43-2014-03

• Goodwin-De Faria, C., & Marinos, V. (2012). Youth understanding & assertion of legal rights: Examining the roles of age and power. The International Journal of Children’s Rights, 20(3), 343–364. https://doi.org/10.1163/157181812X652607

• Gunitsky, S. (2015). Corrupting the cyber-commons: Social media as a tool of autocratic stability. Perspectives on Politics, 13(1), 42–54. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592714003120

• He, D., Liu, Q.-Q., & Shen, X. (2021). Parental conflict and social networking sites addiction in Chinese adolescents: The multiple mediating role of core self-evaluation and loneliness. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, Article 105774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105774

• Hirzalla, F., van Zoonen, L., & de Ridder, J. (2011). Internet use and political participation: Reflections on the mobilization/normalization controversy. The Information Society, 27(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2011.534360

• Hu, Z., Wang, M., Cheng, Z., & Yang, Z. (2020). Impact of marginal and intergenerational effects on carbon emissions from household energy consumption in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 273, Article 123022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123022

• Huhe, N., Tang, M., & Chen, J. (2018). Creating democratic citizens: Political effects of the internet in China. Political Research Quarterly, 71(4), 757–771. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912918764338

• Jha, C. K., & Kodila-Tedika, O. (2020). Does social media promote democracy? Some empirical evidence. Journal of Policy Modeling, 42(2), 271–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2019.05.010

• Jiang, J., Meng, T., & Zhang, Q. (2019). From internet to social safety net: The policy consequences of online participation in China. Governance, 32(3), 531–546. https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12391

• Jing, Z., Li, J., Wang, Y., Yuan, Y., Zhao, D., Hao, W., Yu, C., & Zhou, C. (2021). Association of smoking status and health-related quality of life: Difference among young, middle-aged, and older adults in Shandong, China. Quality of Life Research, 30(2), 521–530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-020-02645-9

• Kahne, J., Lee, N. J., & Feezell, J. T. (2013). The civic and political significance of online participatory cultures among youth transitioning to adulthood. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 10(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2012.701109

• Kamau, S. C. (2017). Democratic engagement in the digital age: Youth, social media and participatory politics in Kenya. Communication, 43(2), 128–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/02500167.2017.1327874

• Karim, M., Nikou, S., & Widén, G. (2021). The role of youths’ perceived information literacy in their assessment of youth information and counselling services. Information Research, 26(2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.47989/irpaper900

• Kavanaugh, A. L., Reese, D. D., Carroll, J. M., & Rosson, M. B. (2005). Weak ties in networked communities. Information Society, 21(2), 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240590925320

• Kristofferson, K., White, K., & Peloza, J. (2014). The nature of slacktivism: How the social observability of an initial act of token support affects subsequent prosocial action. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(6), 1149–1166. https://doi.org/10.1086/674137

• Lee, F. L. F. (2015). Internet, citizen self-mobilisation, and social movement organisations in environmental collective action campaigns: Two Hong Kong cases. Environmental Politics, 24(2), 308–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2014.919749

• Lee, S. H. (2017). Digital democracy in Asia: The impact of the Asian internet on political participation. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 14(1), 62–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2016.1214095

• Li, Y., & Shang, H. (2020). Service quality, perceived value, and citizens’ continuous-use intention regarding e-government: Empirical evidence from China. Information & Management, 57(3), Article 103197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2019.103197

• Liu, Q., Wu, J., Zhou, Z., & Wang, W. (2020). Parental technoference and smartphone addiction in Chinese adolescents: The mediating role of social sensitivity and loneliness. Children and Youth Services Review, 118, Article 105434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105434

• Lorentzen, P., & Scoggins, S. (2015). Understanding China’s rising rights consciousness. The China Quarterly, 223(223), 638–657. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741015000776

• MacAfee, T., & De Simone, J. J. (2012). Killing the bill online? Pathways to young people’s protest engagement via social media. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(11), 579–584. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0153

• McAllister, I. (2016). Internet use, political knowledge and youth electoral participation in Australia. Journal of Youth Studies, 19(9), 1220–1236. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2016.1154936

• Medaglia, R., & Zhu, D. (2017). Public deliberation on government-managed social media: A study on Weibo users in China. Government Information Quarterly, 34(3), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2017.05.003

• Mirra, N., & Garcia, A. (2017). Civic participation reimagined: Youth interrogation and innovation in the multimodal public sphere. Review of Research in Education, 41(1), 136–158. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X17690121

• Momen, M. N. (2020). Myth and reality of freedom of expression on the internet. International Journal of Public Administration, 43(3), 277–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2019.1628055

• Oyedemi, T. (2015). Participation, citizenship and internet use among South African youth. Telematics and Informatics, 32(1), 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2014.08.002

• Pendry, L. F., & Salvatore, J. (2015). Individual and social benefits of online discussion forums. Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 211–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.03.067

• Pils, E. (2016). Assessing evictions and expropriations in China: Efficiency, credibility and rights. Land Use Policy, 58, 437–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.07.015

• Qiu, Y., Xie, Y. J., Chen, L., Wang, S. L., Yang, H., Huang, Z., Liu, P., & Mo, B. (2020). Electronic media device usage and its associations with BMI and obesity in a rapidly developing city in South China. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.551613

• Regilme, S. S. F. (2018). Habermasian thinking on civil society and the public sphere in the age of globalization. Perspectives on Political Science, 47(4), 271–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/10457097.2016.1175805

• Ruess, C., Hoffmann, C. P., Boulianne, S., & Heger, K. (2023). Online political participation: The evolution of a concept. Information, Communication & Society, 26(8), 1495–1512. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2021.2013919

• Shao, P., & Wang, Y. (2017). How does social media change Chinese political culture? The formation of fragmentized public sphere. Telematics and Informatics, 34(3), 694–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2016.05.018

• Shin, W., & Lwin, M. O. (2017). How does “talking about the internet with others” affect teenagers’ experience of online risks? The role of active mediation by parents, peers, and school teachers. New Media and Society, 19(7), 1109–1126. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815626612

• Shiratuddin, N., Hassan, S., Mohd Sani, M. A., Ahmad, M. K., Khalid K. A., Abdull Rahman, N. L., Abd Rahman, Z. S., & Ahmad, N. S. Y. (2017). Media and youth participation in social and political activities: Development of a Survey Instrument and Its Critical Findings. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 25(S), 1–20.

• Szymkowiak, A., Melović, B., Dabić, M., Jeganathan, K., & Kundi, G. S. (2021). Information technology and Gen Z: The role of teachers, the internet, and technology in the education of young people. Technology in Society, 65, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101565

• Tang, L., & Sampson, H. (2012). The interaction between mass media and the internet in non-democratic states: The case of China. Media, Culture & Society, 34(4), 457–471. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443711436358

• Tang, L., Shan, D., & Yang, P. (2016). Workers’ rights defence on China’s internet: An analysis of actors. Information, Communication & Society, 19(8), 1171–1186. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1107613

• Tao, H. L. (2015). Multiple earnings comparisons and subjective earnings fairness: A cross-country study. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, 57, 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2015.04.002

• Tedesco, J. C. (2007). Effects on young adult political information efficacy. American Behavioral Scientist, 50(9), 1183–1195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764207300041

• Van Deursen, A. J., & Helsper, E. J. (2018). Collateral benefits of internet use: Explaining the diverse outcomes of engaging with the internet. New Media & Society, 20(7), 2333–2351. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817715282

• van Laer, J., & van Aelst, P. (2010). Internet and social movement action repertoires: Opportunities and limitations. Information Communication and Society, 13(8), 1146–1171. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691181003628307

• van Praag, B. (2011). Well-being inequality and reference groups: An agenda for new research. Journal of Economic Inequality, 9(1), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-010-9127-2

• Wandaogo, A. (2022). Does digitalization improve government effectiveness? Evidence from developing and developed countries. Applied Economics, 54(33), 3840–3860. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2021.2016590

• Wong, L. (2011). Chinese migrant workers: Rights attainment deficits, rights consciousness and personal strategies. The China Quarterly, 208, 870–892. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741011001044

• Xu, G., Shen, H., & Bock, C. (2017). Perceived violation of rights and interests and collective action participation in China. Social Behavior and Personality, 45(5), 719–732. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.5872

• Ye, Y., Xu, P., & Zhang, M. (2017). Social media, public discourse and civic engagement in modern China. Telematics and Informatics, 34(3), 705–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2016.05.021

• Zeng, J., Stevens, T., & Chen, Y. (2017). China’s solution to global cyber governance: Unpacking the domestic discourse of “Internet Sovereignty.” Politics & Policy, 45(3), 432–464. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12202

• Zhang, W., & Chia, S. C. (2006). The effects of mass media use and social capital on civic and political participation. Communication Studies, 57(3), 277–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510970600666974

• Zhang, X., Wen, D., Liang, J., & Lei, J. (2017). How the public uses social media wechat to obtain health information in China: A survey study. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 17(2), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-017-0470-0

• Zheng, S., Wang, J., Sun, C., Zhang, X., & Kahn, M. E. (2019). Air pollution lowers Chinese urbanites’ expressed happiness on social media. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(3), 237–243. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0521-2

• Zhu, Z., Ma, W., Sousa-Poza, A., & Leng, C. (2020). The effect of internet usage on perceptions of social fairness: Evidence from rural China. China Economic Review, 62, Article 101508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2020.101508