PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Vertical farming, including hydroponics, is a growing trend in the agricultural sector due to the increasing demand for food and urbanisation. Thus, hydroponics can save space and achieve faster plant growth compared to traditional farming methods. The concept of smart farming has been applied in this study to improve the ease of control and monitoring of hydroponic systems. The effects of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), light distance, and colour (purple and white) on water spinach growth in a hydroponic system were investigated. Additionally, an Internet of Things (IoT) controller was developed and implemented to facilitate the use of the system in an indoor hydroponic-based environment system. Based on the results, the distance between the LED light of 15 cm and the plants and the colour of the LED light (white) can positively impact plant growth in a hydroponic system. Using an IoT controller also allows for continuous monitoring and control of factors that influence plant growth. Hence, this research would catalyse the local smart hydroponic farming system for improved deliverables.

• Al Meselmani, M. A. (2022). Nutrient solution for hydroponics. In P. M. Turan, A. P. S. Argin, P. E. Yildirim & D. A. Güneş (Eds.), Soilless Culture [Working Title] (p. Ch. 3). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101604

• Al Shafouri, M., Ahmed, N. M., Hassan, Z., & Almessiere, M. A. (2018). The effect of the wavelength of the LED used to pump phosphor produced from curcuminoids dye extracted from turmeric (Curcuma Longa L.) to Produce white light. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 454, No. 1, p. 012048). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/454/1/012048

• Ayaz, M., Ammad-Uddin, M., Sharif, Z., Mansour, A., & Aggoune, E. H. M. (2019). Internet-of-Things (IoT)-based smart agriculture: Toward making the fields talk. IEEE Access, 7, 129551-129583. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2932609

• Balashova, I., Sirota, S., & Pinchuk, Y. (2019). Vertical vegetable growing: Creating tomato varieties for multi-tiered hydroponic installations. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 395(1), Article 012079. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/395/1/012079

• Bantis, F., Fotelli, M., Ilić, Z. S., & Koukounaras, A. (2020). Physiological and phytochemical responses of spinach baby leaves grown in a PFAL system with leds and saline nutrient solution. Agriculture, 10(11), Article 574. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10110574

• Bian, Z., Jiang, N., Grundy, S., & Lu, C. (2018). Uncovering LED light effects on plant growth: New angles and perspectives - LED light for improving plant growth, nutrition and energy-use efficiency. Acta Horticulturae, 1227(1227), 491-498. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2018.1227.62

• Bugbee, B. (2004). Nutrient management in recirculating hydroponic culture. Acta Horticulturae, 648(648), 99-112. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.648.12

• Chan, Y. K., Koo, V. C., Choong, E. H. K., & Lim, C. S. (2021). The Drone Based Hyperspectral Imaging System for Precision Agriculture. Natural Volatiles & Essential Oils Journal, 8(5), 5561-5573.

• Coble, K. H., Mishra, A. K., Ferrell, S., & Griffin, T. (2018). Big data in agriculture: A challenge for the future. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 40(1), 79-96. https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppx056

• Darwish, A., Hassanien, A. E., Elhoseny, M., Sangaiah, A. K., & Muhammad, K. (2019). The impact of the hybrid platform of internet of things and cloud computing on healthcare systems: opportunities, challenges, and open problems. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing, 10(10), 4151-4166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-017-0659-1

• De Rijck, G., & Schrevens, E. (1998). Comparison of the mineral composition of twelve standard nutrient solutions. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 21(10), 2115-2125. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904169809365548

• Din, S., Paul, A., Ahmad, A., Gupta, B. B., & Rho, S. (2018). Service orchestration of optimizing continuous features in industrial surveillance using big data based fog-enabled Internet of Things. IEEE Access, 6, 21582-21591. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2800758

• Dunaieva, I., Vecherkov, V., Filina, Y., Popovych, V., Barbotkina, E., Pashtetsky, V., Terleev, V., Mirschel, W., & Akimov, L. (2021). Review of automatized meteorological stations use for agricultural purposes. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 937, No. 3, p. 032097). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/937/3/032097

• Dunn, B., & Mills-Ibibofori, T. (2016). LED Lighting for Plant Production. Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.28851.84000

• Gao, W., He, D., Ji, F., Zhang, S., & Zheng, J. (2020). Effects of daily light integral and LED spectrum on growth and nutritional quality of hydroponic spinach. Agronomy, 10(8), Article 1082. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10081082

• Gráda, C. Ó. (1992). Ireland’s Great Famine. Department of Economics University College Dublin.

• Gupta, S. D., & Agarwal, A. (2017). Artificial lighting system for plant growth and development: Chronological advancement, working principles, and comparative assessment. In S. D. Gupta (Ed.), Light Emitting Diodes for Agriculture (pp. 1-25). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5807-3_1

• Hamza, A., Abdelraouf, R. E., Helmy, Y. I., & El-Sawy, S. M. M. (2022). Using deep water culture as one of the important hydroponic systems for saving water, mineral fertilizers and improving the productivity of lettuce crop. International Journal of Health Sciences, 6, 2311-2331. https://doi.org/10.53730/ijhs.v6nS9.12932

• Hartanti, A., & Sulistyowati, R. (2022). The effectiveness of using types of containers and consentration AB mix on the growth and production of white packcoy (Brassica rapa L.) Var. dakota uses wick system hydroponics. Nabatia, 10(2), 101-109. https://doi.org/10.21070/nabatia.v10i2.1613

• Huang, Y., Chen, Z., Yu, T., Huang, X., & Gu, X. (2018). Agricultural remote sensing big data: Management and applications. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 17(9), 1915-1931. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(17)61859-8

• Janeczko, D. B., & Timmons, M. B. (2019). Effects of seeding pattern and cultivar on productivity of baby spinach (Spinacia oleracea) grown hydroponically in deep-water culture. Horticulturae, 5(1), Article 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae5010020

• Khan, N., Ray, R. L., Sargani, G. R., Ihtisham, M., Khayyam, M., & Ismail, S. (2021). Current progress and future prospects of agriculture technology: Gateway to sustainable agriculture. Sustainability, 13(9), Article 4883. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094883

• Khwankaew, J., Nguyen, D. T., Kagawa, N., Takagaki, M., Maharjan, G., & Lu, N. (2018). Growth and nutrient level of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.) in response to LED light quality in a plant factory. Acta Horticulturae, 1227, 653-660. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2018.1227.83

• Kim, D., & Son, J. E. (2022). Adding far-red to red, blue supplemental light-emitting diode interlighting improved sweet pepper yield but attenuated carotenoid content. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, Article 938199. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.938199

• Kondratieva, V. V., Voronkova, T. V., Semenova, M. V., Olekhnovich, L. S., & Shelepova, O. V. (2022). Effect of LEDs on the growth and physiological responses of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1045(1), Article 12090. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1045/1/012090

• Lem, A., Bjørndal, A., & Lappo, T. (2014). Economic analysis of supply and demand for food up to 2030. In FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular (FAO) eng no. 1089 (Vol. 1089, Issue 1089). Food and Agriculture Organization.

• Madushanki, A. A. R., Halgamuge, M. N., Wirasagoda, W. A. H. S., & Syed, A. (2019). Adoption of the Internet of Things (IoT) in agriculture and smart farming towards urban greening: A review. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, 10(4), 11-28. https://doi.org/10.14569/IJACSA.2019.0100402

• Magwaza, S. T., Magwaza, L. S., Odindo, A. O., & Mditshwa, A. (2020). Hydroponic technology as decentralised system for domestic wastewater treatment and vegetable production in urban agriculture: A review. Science of The Total Environment, 698, Article 134154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134154

• Mamatha, V., & Kavitha, J. C. (2023). Machine learning based crop growth management in greenhouse environment using hydroponics farming techniques. Measurement: Sensors, 25, Article 100665. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measen.2023.100665

• Namani, S., & Gonen, B. (2020). Smart agriculture based on IoT and cloud computing. In 2020 3rd International Conference on Information and Computer Technologies (ICICT) (pp. 553-556). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICICT50521.2020.00094

• Namgyel, T., Siyang, S., Khunarak, C., Pobkrut, T., Norbu, J., Chaiyasit, T., & Kerdcharoen, T. (2018). IoT based hydroponic system with supplementary LED light for smart home farming of lettuce. In 2018 15th International Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications and Information Technology (ECTI-CON) (pp. 221-224). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/ECTICon.2018.8619983

• Ngcobo, B. L., Bertling, I., & Clulow, A. D. (2022). Artificial daylength enhancement (pre-sunrise and post-sunset) with blue and red led lights affects tomato plant development, yield, and fruit nutritional quality. Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology, 63(6), 847-856. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-022-00447-1

• Patel, N. R., & Kumar, S. (2018). Wireless sensor networks’ challenges and future prospects. 2018 In International Conference on System Modeling & Advancement in Research Trends (SMART) (pp. 60-65). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/SYSMART.2018.8746937

• Paul, A., & Jeyaraj, R. (2019). Internet of Things: A primer. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 1(1), 37-47. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.133

• Rathinam, D. D. K., Surendran, D., Shilpa, A., Grace, A. S., & Sherin, J. (2019). Modern agriculture using wireless sensor network (WSN). In 2019 5th International Conference on Advanced Computing & Communication Systems (ICACCS) (pp. 515-519). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICACCS.2019.8728284

• Runkle, E. (2016). Red Light and Plant Growth. GPN Magazine. https://gpnmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/GPNAugust_TechSpeak.pdf

• Satterthwaite, D., McGranahan, G., & Tacoli, C. (2010). Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1554), 2809-2820. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0136

• Setiawan, D., Siswati, L., & Ariyanto, A. (2022). Water pump control system in hydroponic plants using the ebb and flow method. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 1041, No. 1, p. 012020). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1041/1/012020

• Singh, S. (2009). Basics of light emitting diodes, characterizations and applications. In Handbook of Light Emitting and Schottky Diode Research (pp. 1-36). Nova Science Publishers

• Suryaningprang, A., Suteja, J., Mulyaningrum, M., & Herlinawati, E. (2021). Hydroponic: Empowering local farmer knowhow to gain value added on agriculture commodity. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(1), 787-796. https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v4i1.1676

• Susanto, F., Nurtantio, P., Soeleman, M. A., Sunarya, P. A., Pujino, & Nursasongko, E. (2021). P2P for prototype embedded system information on agriculture result using IoT. In 2021 International Seminar on Application for Technology of Information and Communication (ISemantic) (pp. 348-352). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/iSemantic52711.2021.9573206

• Taofik, A., Frasetya, B., Nugraha, R., & Sudrajat, A. (2019). The effects of subtrat composition on the growth of Brassica oleraceae Var. Achepala with drip hydroponic. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1402, No. 3, p. 033031). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1402/3/033031

• Thakur, D., Kumar, Y., Kumar, A., & Singh, P. K. (2019). Applicability of wireless sensor networks in precision agriculture: A review. Wireless Personal Communications, 107(1), 471-512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11277-019-06285-2

• Torabi, M., Mokhtarzadeh, A., & Mahlooji, M. (2012). The role of hydroponics technique as a standard methodology in various aspects of plant biology researches. In T. Asao (Ed.), Hydroponics - A Standard Methodology for Plant Biological Researches (pp. 113-134). InTech. https://doi.org/10.5772/36612

• Ullo, S. L., & Sinha, G. R. (2020). Advances in smart environment monitoring systems using IoT and sensors. Sensors, 20(11), Article 3113. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113113

• Wang, M., Dong, C., & Gao, W. (2019). Evaluation of the growth, photosynthetic characteristics, antioxidant capacity, biomass yield and quality of tomato using aeroponics, hydroponics and porous tube-vermiculite systems in bio-regenerative life support systems. Life Sciences in Space Research, 22, 68-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lssr.2019.07.008

• Wimmerova, L., Keken, Z., Solcova, O., Bartos, L., & Spacilova, M. (2022). A comparative LCA of aeroponic, hydroponic, and soil cultivations of bioactive substance producing plants. Sustainability, 14(4), Article 2421. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042421

• Xu, Y., Chang, Y., Chen, G., & Lin, H. (2016). The research on LED supplementary lighting system for plants. Optik, 127(18), 7193-7201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2016.05.056

• Yu, L., Gao, W., R Shamshiri, R., Tao, S., Ren, Y., Zhang, Y., & Su, G. (2021). Review of Research Progress on Soil Moisture Sensor Technology. Verlag nicht ermittelbar. http://dx.doi.org/10.34657/10037

• Zhou, J., Chen, J., Chen, X., Zhu, X., Qiu, Y., Song, H., Rao, Y., Zhang, C., Cao, X., & Cui, X. (2021). Sensitivity of six typical spatiotemporal fusion methods to different influential factors: A comparative study for a normalized difference vegetation index time series reconstruction. Remote Sensing of Environment, 252, Article 112130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.112130